Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
Previous research on translanguaging in classrooms for a language other than English (LOTE) has shown that it helps learners compensate for limited language proficiency. Few studies have investigated how translanguaging promotes learners’ conceptual understanding of the target language. This study aims to investigate how a Chinese teacher mediates conceptual understanding of the target language among 15 Spanish major undergraduates in a Chinese university through pedagogical translanguaging. Data were collected from classroom observations, questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews. Microgenesis of the discourse reveals that teacher–student mediation through pedagogical translanguaging facilitates students’ conceptual understanding of Spanish linguistic and cultural knowledge, enhances metalinguistic awareness, and promotes self-regulation. Translanguaging space built up in classroom interaction fosters collaborative dialogue, creating inclusive learning environments. This study may illuminate how multilingual teachers leverage diverse linguistic and sociocultural knowledge to assist students in conceptualizing and internalizing target language form and meaning through translanguaging in LOTE education.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
This article reports on a study that explored Japanese university students’ evolving motivational regulation by mapping its changes over one year of their studies in a collaborative project-based learning environment. An autonomy-supportive collaborative intervention was delivered to the 19 participants with varying or no experience of communicative language teaching and study abroad. Our cluster-based analysis of multiple questionnaire responses revealed increased motivation among the participants. Three learners were selected to represent each clustering group based on the unique characteristics of their motivational trajectories over the year, which reflect the mediating impacts of their previous language learning experiences and their learning experience during the pedagogical intervention. The findings indicate that language teachers can enhance learners’ ‘motivational regulation’ by creating a supportive learning environment in the classroom.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
In the field of English language teaching, the deeply entrenched dichotomy between ‘native English-speaking teachers’ (NESTs) and ‘non-native English-speaking teachers’ (NNESTs) has forcibly positioned NNESTs as linguistically and pedagogically inferior to their native counterparts. The prevalence of native-speaker ideologies marginalizes NNESTs in professional settings and impedes their agency enactment in claiming identities as competent educators. Therefore, it is crucial to facilitate English teachers (especially NNESTs) to practice agency to (re)negotiate identities to move beyond native-speaker ideologies. Framed by positioning theory, this study investigates how 12 in-service English teachers worldwide exercised agency to (re)negotiate positions throughout an innovative identity-based intervention. The intervention, implemented in three online sessions across six weeks, instigated participants’ identity reflections based on three themes: theories, pedagogy and power. Each session comprised one online seminar and one self-reflective written task. Drawing on data from the intervention and pre- and post-intervention interviews, our findings yielded three distinct identity negotiation patterns, namely active, tentative and reluctant repositioning. Participants of each pattern presented unique combinations of repositioning acts, including resisting inferior positions, selectively engaging with empowering positions, shifting back to initial positions and maintaining existing positions. Agency and positioning were found to be reciprocally informed. While agency was practised to facilitate repositioning, the agentic positions teachers undertook influenced agency enactment as well. Participants’ choices of different repositioning acts were jointly mediated by their evaluation of native-speaker ideologies’ impact on their existing positions and their power to challenge native-speakerism in their own professional settings. At a theoretical level, this article provides a conceptual framework that illustrates the interconnectedness between the intervention, teacher identity and teacher agency. At a practical level, it demonstrates the effectiveness of implementing identity-based intervention in teacher education to foster NNESTs’ repositioning and agency enactment against the backdrop of native-speakerism.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
This study examines whether learners exposed to specific example sentences through data-driven learning (DDL) can not only identify generalized linguistic patterns but also apply the patterns to other expressions, thereby demonstrating that DDL is a learning method based on a usage-based model. Forty-three Japanese learners of English participated in DDL activities to study the use of six verbs from two verb classes (three from the Throw class and three from the Whisper class) in terms of the dative alternation. Specifically, they studied whether these verbs can be used in the double object (DO) construction or the prepositional dative (PD) construction. The participants underwent pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests, during which they evaluated the grammaticality of sentences containing the studied verbs, as well as unstudied verbs from the same classes and verbs from the control classes (the Send and Mention classes). A cumulative link mixed model (CLMM) was employed to analyse the effects of test timing (pre/post/delayed post), learning (studied/unstudied), and construction (PD/DO) on test scores. The results showed that learners made more correct judgments on the post-test than on the pre-test. This improvement was observed not only for the studied verbs but also for unstudied verbs from the same classes, and even for verbs from the control classes. This indicates that DDL embodies the idea of a usage-based model; that is, learners generalize linguistic patterns through language experience. Furthermore, the learning effects were retained even in the delayed post-test, suggesting that DDL is not merely a tool for referencing word usage but also a learning method that converts input into intake.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
This study investigates the relationship between students’ English language proficiency, their reported levels of academic English literacy, prior content knowledge and their attainment of content knowledge in English medium instruction (EMI). The study also examines students’ perceptions of difficulties with academic English literacy at different levels of English language proficiency. Pre-course and post-course content tests were administered to 27 EMI students in an introductory Chemistry course at a university in Tokyo, Japan. The test results were triangulated with data from a quantitative measure of reported academic literacy and follow-up interviews to explore perceptions of ease and difficulties for academic language skills (i.e. reading, listening, speaking and writing). The quantitative findings indicated that students’ proficiency statistically significantly predicted post-test scores. Interviews with students corroborated this finding, illustrating the specific difficulties in academic language literacy faced by students with lower proficiency. However, proficiency alone did not determine success as other factors, such as previous exposure to EMI and prior content knowledge, played significant roles. The study found a non-linear relationship between reported difficulties with academic English literacy and test outcomes, indicating that students who reported fewer academic difficulties were not necessarily more successful in gaining content knowledge than those facing significant challenges in academic language tasks. The findings emphasise that academic support in EMI programs should not solely focus on test outcomes but also address the broader challenges students face with academic English literacy. Implications are discussed regarding language support, EMI curriculum planning and future research directions.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
To enhance the visibility of pragmatics in second language (L2) teacher education, this study observed the development of a Spanish-speaking graduate teaching assistant (GTA) regarding his pragmatic knowledge and reflections on potential application during a 12-week pragmatics seminar at a US public university. The Spanish GTA taught the language as the teacher of record while participating in the training. From a sociocultural perspective, the training provided the GTA with exposure to and explanations of academic concepts across three modules: pragmatics, cross-cultural pragmatics, and instructional pragmatics. The participant also had the opportunity to engage in two languaging tasks, either privately (via written reflection reports) or inter-psychologically (through dialogic verbalized reflections). The results suggest that the Spanish GTA developed an improved conceptual understanding of pragmatics, enhanced awareness of cross-cultural pragmatics, and increased readiness to apply these concepts in teaching over time. The participant perceived his engagement in the two languaging tasks as a rewarding experience, as indicated by his verbalized reflections. Lastly, suggestions for modifying the languaging tasks and effectively incorporating them into pragmatics training were discussed.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
With the existing research gap regarding the validation of the effects of teacher feedback, the relatively limited exploration of the correlation between teacher feedback and speaking performance, and the inadequate examination of emotions, this study endeavored to investigate the efficacy of teacher feedback in digital storytelling among learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Emphasis is placed on speaking performance, emotions, perceptions among high and low achievers, and teacher reflections. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research design incorporated data from pre-/post-tests of digital storytelling, student responses to an emotion questionnaire, student perceptions of teacher feedback, and teacher reflections on feedback practices. The findings demonstrated that teacher feedback not only significantly impacted students’ speaking performances throughout the digital storytelling process but also played a key role in regulating their emotions. Both high and low achievers exhibited predominantly positive emotions during digital storytelling and creation. However, high achievers demonstrated greater sensitivity to competitive pressures, contributing to slight differences in emotional experiences between the two groups. Furthermore, low achievers displayed a greater desire for feedback and derived more substantial benefits, particularly in the areas of image selection and arrangement. Based on teacher reflections, feedback types were focused on adjusting chosen storybooks (including storyline development and image/illustration design), establishing fulfillment criteria, ensuring equitable distribution of work and presentation within each group, and addressing pronunciation concerns.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
English is increasingly reinforcing its worldwide well-established position as facilitator of cross-cultural communication. This status has enhanced the use of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in European universities. As a result, a deeper understanding of all the elements participating and converging in the teaching–learning process (T-L) in EMI settings seems necessary and beneficial in tertiary settings. One of these elements is pedagogical genres and their perceived use, utility, and efficiency as teaching/learning tools in EMI contexts. This study aims to explore, from the learners’ perspective, the incidence and perceived usefulness of different pedagogical genres at play both in Economics and Engineering courses taught in English. By means of a questionnaire created ad hoc to be responded to by non-native English students from Economics and Engineering degrees, both descriptive and comparative results (statistically-generated and focused on significance) were obtained as regards, for instance, those pedagogical genres that students may find more problematic or less useful in their teaching–learning process. These results, which include a series of specific pedagogical suggestions, may serve to reconsider the actual usefulness or adequacy of some genres with the final objective of better adapting their use to real students’ needs and demands.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
Translanguaging has thrived as a pedagogy for second language (L2) acquisition because of its potential in maximizing L2 learners’ communicative repertoire. However, limited attention has been paid to how translanguaging can influence L2 speaking within the framework of task-based language teaching (TBLT). This study explored how different language use (i.e., L2 only and translanguaging) in collaborative pre-task planning contributed to L2 learners’ subsequent monologic speaking performance, as measured by complexity, accuracy, fluency (CAF), and idea units. The planning behaviours were also examined to offer explanations for the differences in learners’ speaking performance. Altogether 72 undergraduate students from a Chinese university voluntarily participated in this study. The results showed that translanguaging planning contributed to the conceptualization stage of speech processing, as evidenced by gains in syntactic complexity and idea units. This positive effect might have resulted from enhanced communication efficiency due to translanguaging planning. The translanguaging group also generated more turns, produced more ideas on average, and devoted more time to vocabulary talk and task management. This was because translanguaging planning enabled learners to prioritize their language use for better task execution. In other words, the flexibility of translanguaging allows for a more strategic approach to language use, which can enhance collaborative efforts to successfully complete tasks. In contrast, the L2-only planning contributed to the formulation stage of speech processing, as was manifested in fewer mid-clause pauses. A trade-off between complexity and fluency was also observed in the study. Implications for the use of translanguaging in L2 speaking pedagogy are discussed.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
In Australia, the teaching of pronunciation is embedded in the curriculum of a national adult migrant English program offering English as an additional language (EAL) tuition to newly arrived migrants. Students in the program who have had limited opportunities to develop print literacy in English or their first languages are offered tuition in pre-level EAL classes. Teachers of these students lack access to relevant training or research on oral skills pedagogies but are expected to integrate pronunciation teaching into their lessons. This article examines pre-level teachers’ pronunciation teaching practices in the Australian adult EAL context. The study introduced teachers to a practitioner research approach of professional learning through a series of exploratory practice (EP) focus group sessions. Using the lens of the theory of practice architectures, this article describes how teachers engaged in the EP process of puzzling to foster a praxis orientation towards the teaching of EAL pronunciation with preliterate adults. Findings revealed that the practices of puzzling facilitated the development of teachers’ understandings and enabled practices of pronunciation teaching to be tailored to their local teaching context. The puzzling process, initiated by the researcher in the first session, was taken up by teachers in subsequent sessions and fostered a praxis-oriented approach to learning viewed as important by teachers. The study has implications for pronunciation teaching research as it puts forward an innovative, practice architectures theoretical framing of EP and offers new insights into pronunciation teacher learning in the adult migrant EAL context.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
In many compulsory second language (L2) classrooms, learners routinely encounter linguistically difficult L2 reading tasks. However, it is unclear (1) how learners behaviorally engage and perform on such tasks, (2) what motivational characteristics predict their reactions, and (3) whether maladaptive learner reactions can be ameliorated. This study examined the role of two motivational constructs (attributions and self-efficacy) and a common teaching practice (effort feedback) in predicting and ameliorating learners’ behavioral engagement and performance on linguistically difficult L2 reading tasks. Japanese high school students (N = 238) studying English were recruited for an experimental study and randomly assigned to either the treatment group (n = 124) or the comparison group (n = 114). Both groups first performed a linguistically difficult L2 reading task. Time on task was measured as a direct indicator of behavioral task engagement. They then rated the success or failure attributions of their task performance. Next, the treatment group received brief positive feedback highlighting effort attributions (i.e. effort feedback), while the comparison group did not receive any attributional feedback. Both groups then rated their levels of self-efficacy to perform a similar task. Lastly, both groups performed a follow-up linguistically difficult L2 reading task, and their time on task was recorded. Results showed that participants generally displayed low behavioral engagement and performed poorly on the initial task. Both the treatment and comparison groups experienced a significant decline in their behavioral engagement in the subsequent task, but the treatment group showed a small improvement in their subsequent task performance. The external controllability dimension of attributions positively predicted learners’ behavioral engagement on the subsequent task. These findings shed light on an unexplored territory of task engagement research that warrants further attention.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
The purported foreign language gains of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) over traditional EFL (English as a foreign language) programs with young learners are still unclear. Specifically, little is known about how CLIL time and timing impact grammatical complexity. Additionally, mediating factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and extramural exposure have been rarely controlled in the existing literature. This study analysed grammatical complexity in four groups of young learners in Spain (n = 108) during an oral task. The sample comprised: (1) an EFL-only group (1,766 EFL hours), (2) a low-exposure CLIL group (1,766 EFL hours + 707 CLIL hours), (3) a high-exposure CLIL group (1,766 EFL hours + 2,473 CLIL hours), and (4) a younger high-exposure CLIL group (1,545 EFL hours + 2,164 CLIL hours). All groups were matched for SES and extramural exposure. The analysis included independent ratings and computational measures of overall sentence complexity, subordination, and coordination. Distribution, Kruskal–Wallis and post-hoc tests were conducted. Results showed significant differences in favour of the high-exposure groups over the EFL-only group in the ratings and in two of the computational measures: overall sentence complexity and subordination. This evidence highlights the potential of high-exposure CLIL to supplement grammatical instruction in EFL programs. Our results also suggest that the comparatively higher exposure of the younger high-exposure CLIL group has the potential to override the one-year cognitive advantage of the older, EFL-only learners.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
With the growth of artificial intelligence (AI) tools available to anybody with internet access, English language learners are increasingly turning to these resources to improve their writing skills. By examining their utilization of AI tools to improve their writing proficiency, this research examines the perspectives of Turkish English language learners enrolled in a preparatory program at a state university in Istanbul. Using a Q methodological approach, researchers created a set of 40 statements based on a literature study, which were then sent to 55 consenting individuals. Qualitative information was also collected by interviewing five students in depth. The analysis indicated a growing tendency among students to utilize AI tools for writing assignments, highlighting advantages such as assistance in translation, idea generation, and preparedness for future studies. However, participants expressed concerns over excessive dependence on these technologies, which can result in problems such as plagiarism, reduced originality, and ethical dilemmas. These findings highlight the need for supporting the ethical and balanced use of AI technologies in language learning environments, ensuring that learners may use technology efficiently while maintaining the integrity and authenticity of their work. Further study should explore strategies for integrating AI tools into language teaching in ways that minimize these concerns and enhance their benefits for learners.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
Translanguaging pedagogy has drawn increasing attention from language educators worldwide, and its underlying ideologies and pedagogical affordances and challenges have been strongly debated. In this article, the researchers examined the perceptions of a cohort of pre-service teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) at a teachers’ university in inland China to explore the necessities and challenges of implementing translanguaging pedagogy in secondary EFL education. Drawing upon data from interviews, focus group interviews, group discussion, reflective essays, and classroom observation, researchers found that these pre-service teachers readily accept the concept of translanguaging pedagogy, which demonstrates their usage-based and decolonial stance towards English education. However, most participants’ understanding of translanguaging pedagogy remains spontaneous rather than at the strategic level. Participants report challenges to this pedagogy, particularly from the high-stake, examination-oriented EFL education system and stakeholders’ pervasive monolingual ideology. The article concludes with a call to reform the examination-oriented EFL education system toward a usage-based and holistic language education to initiate policies to legitimize translanguaging pedagogy, and to design a systematic translanguaging-oriented curriculum, activities, and assessment for EFL education.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s own capability, is an important element in students’ academic success and positive functioning in school settings. However, self-efficacy, like motivation, is easily frustrated by the social environment in school. Although studies have investigated the cross-theoretical relationship between self-efficacy and autonomy support in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms in a university and a secondary school setting, it has not been examined in the primary school context. To address the research gap, the present study explored the relationship that might exist between self-efficacy and perceived autonomy support in primary EFL classrooms. The participants were 454 fifth-grade students from three primary schools in Japan and Taiwan. They responded to scales measuring academic self-efficacy and perceived autonomy support. The three time-point data were collected during regular classes throughout the school year. The data were tested using a cross-lagged panel model. Results demonstrated that significant reciprocity existed between academic self-efficacy and perceived autonomy support. Unexpectedly, however, academic self-efficacy negatively predicted perceived autonomy support, which in turn negatively predicted academic self-efficacy. Findings indicate that despite the intentions of teachers to promote positive functioning, learners’ existing goals, desires, and inclinations also agentically influence their perceptions of learning environments. These findings offer both theoretical and practical considerations for future psychological research on young language learners.

Language Teaching Research, Ahead of Print.
French has long been a widely embraced minority foreign language in China. However, French also faces a dilemma that there is a widespread concern over the decline of interest in learning foreign languages in current China. As a response to this ‘foreign language crisis’ in French education, this study investigates the psychological-cognitive perceptions of Chinese English-major students who are learning French as an er wai or second foreign language (L3). Focus is directed towards examining the stereotypical representations of France as the primary target language country. The students’ mental images of France were identified and assessed for favorability and prominence. It indicated that, though as L3, these learners’ mental representations of France appeared as rich and diversified, which were overwhelmingly positive. Images pertaining to geographical locations, landscape architecture, tourism resources were most frequent and prominent. The findings allowed for formulating a tentative proposition suggesting that the integrative orientation of these L3 learners significantly contributes to their study motivations. The findings suggested that students’ stereotypes about France can be utilized in the teaching curriculum to promote the course, increase learners’ interest, and enhance teaching quality. Pedagogical implications regarding the development of the cultural components and international influences of France are also discussed.