The Journal of Special Education, Ahead of Print.
Parents of individuals with disabilities face many challenges in accessing appropriate school services for their offspring. While advocacy programs are becoming increasingly common, little is known about the nature of parent advocacy including its related constructs. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between motivation, special education knowledge, empowerment, three types of advocacy activities (i.e., individual, peer, and systemic), and civic engagement among 246 parents of children with disabilities using structural equation modeling. Results show that motivation leads to improved knowledge and empowerment. More than knowledge, empowerment significantly and positively correlates with individual advocacy. There is a linear relationship suggesting that individual advocacy informs peer advocacy and peer advocacy informs systemic advocacy. Finally, greater systemic advocacy positively and significantly correlated with greater civic engagement. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The Journal of Special Education, Ahead of Print.
The purpose of this study was to examine responses from high school students with (n = 356) and without (n = 1,599) an individualized education program (IEP) on 11 independent living skills (ILS) items taken from a broader college and career readiness assessment. Results indicated significant differences in ILS proficiency based on IEP status. Specifically, students with IEPs self-rated lower across all items. Students with and without IEPs self-rated the most similarly on community participation and differed the most on technology use. There were also notable differences based on school demographics. Limitations, implications for practice and policy, and research are discussed with regard to critical ILS that should be prioritized for all students, including those who receive special education transition services.

The Journal of Special Education, Ahead of Print.
Students with extensive support needs (ESN) have an increased risk of engaging in challenging behavior due to a range of factors, including communication and health needs common among this student population. When students engage in behaviors that impede learning, school teams organize support across social and emotional domains to ensure access to free and appropriate public education (FAPE) as outlined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. These supports are often formalized in the student’s individualized education program (IEP). This analysis aimed to explore the type and proportion of behavior goals in the IEPs of 1,103 students with ESN across four school districts in the Mountain West region of the United States. We found that students with ESN served in traditional schools were significantly more likely to have a larger proportion of behavior goals related to social skills and emotional regulation than students with ESN served in separate schools. Students with ESN served in separate schools were significantly more likely to have a greater proportion of behavior goals related to compliance and on-task behavior than students with ESN served in traditional schools. We discuss implications for future research and practice related to IEP goal development for students with ESN.