Abstract

Seeing written forms of novel words during learning can help memorize vocabulary, but it may alter pronunciation, especially when orthography is opaque like in English. This study investigated whether a color-code helps participants learn novel words with unpredictable pronunciation. Sixty Spanish speakers learned 16 English-like pseudowords in one of three training conditions. Audio group learned training items with the auditory word form only. Two other groups learned items with auditory and written forms, with a color-code (ColorCode group) or with random colors (RandColor group). Elicited speech samples from each group were assessed for recall and pronunciation accuracy. ColorCode group outperformed other groups on pronunciation in posttest tasks including reading training items in black text, and reading color-coded untrained items. Color-code benefits even strengthened one week later. These findings indicate that a color-code can support pronunciation learning in languages with opaque orthography and should be more systematically implemented in learning resources.

Abstract

This study involved a three-level meta-analysis on the correlations between metalinguistic awareness (i.e., orthographic, phonological, and morphological awareness) and Chinese word reading. Based on 16,823 individuals from 81 studies, the results revealed moderate associations between all three metalinguistic skills and Chinese word reading. Additionally, location, grade, and measurement type moderated these relationships. Orthographic awareness showed stronger associations with Chinese word reading in preschool than in other grades, among participants from Taiwan than those from mainland China, and when measurement involved semantic radical function awareness than when it involved form and phonetic radical function awareness. Additionally, syllable-level phonological awareness showed stronger correlations than other levels only in preschool, and the associations declined after low primary. Subsyllable awareness showed the strongest association in low primary. Furthermore, word reading measurement moderated its association with phonological and morphological awareness. Phonological awareness correlated more with word reading accuracy than fluency, and morphological awareness correlated more with multicharacter than single-character word reading accuracy.

Abstract

The present study used immersive virtual-reality (iVR) technology to simulate a real-life environment and examined its impact on novel-word learning and lexicalization. On Days 1–3, Chinese-speaking participants learned German words in iVR and traditional picture–word (PW) association contexts. A semantic-priming task was used to measure word lexicalization on Day 4, and again 6 months later. The behavioral findings of an immediate posttest showed a larger semantic-priming effect on iVR-learned words compared to PW-learned words. Moreover, electrophysiological results of the immediate posttest demonstrated significant semantic-priming effects only for iVR-learned words, such that related prime–target pairs elicited enhanced N400 amplitude compared to unrelated prime–target pairs. However, after 6 months, there were no differences between the iVR and PW conditions. The findings support the embodied-cognition theory and dual-coding theory and suggest that a virtual real-life learning context with multimodal enrichment facilitates novel-word learning and lexicalization but that these effects seem to disappear over time.

Language Learning, Volume 75, Issue 1, Page 1-4, March 2025.

Abstract

The present study compared learning gains at both form recall and meaning recall levels across three learning conditions: viewing without note-taking, viewing with conventional note-taking, and viewing with guided note-taking. A total of 134 Chinese learners of English were assigned to three experimental groups and a no-treatment control group. Results showed that (a) guided note-taking contributed to greater vocabulary learning than conventional note-taking on the form recall test, (b) both guided and conventional note-taking contributed to significant vocabulary gains on the meaning recall test, and (c) viewing without note-taking did not contribute to significant learning gains. The analyses also revealed that writing unknown words in notes, the inclusion of target words in the lecture slides, and learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge affected learning, but frequency of occurrence, word length, and learners’ level of viewing comprehension did not.

Abstract

Learning multiword expressions (MWEs) typically involves exposure to language input, such as through reading and listening. However, this way of learning can be rather slow. Therefore, finding strategies to enhance learning from input is crucial for language acquisition. In this study, 80 Iranian learners of English as a foreign language read short texts with 28 figurative English phrasal verbs (PVs), repeated three times. In a counterbalanced experimental design, we manipulated definition placement (before vs. after text) and the lag of retrieval practice (short vs. long lag). Learning was measured via immediate and delayed gap-fill and meaning-generation posttests. We found that providing definitions after reading resulted in greater learning outcomes than presenting definitions before reading under both short- and long-lag conditions. Retrieving PVs under the long lag further increased this advantage. The results contribute to the understanding of how contextual learning and retention of MWEs from reading can be supported.

Language Learning, Volume 75, Issue 1, Page 337-342, March 2025.

Language Learning, Volume 75, Issue 1, Page 330-336, March 2025.

Abstract

Abundant research has indicated fluency features as meaningful predictors of second language proficiency. However, the extent to which different fluency dimensions and features can predict proficiency remains underexplored. This meta-analysis employed a multilevel modeling approach to synthesize fluency–proficiency relationships from 71 empirical studies from 1959–2023. Additionally, we examined several moderator variables, including task type, learning context, age, and proficiency measure. The correlations found were strongly positive for speed (r = .55), moderately positive for productivity (r = .38), moderately negative for breakdown (r = −.33), and weakly negative for repair (r = −.11). Moderator analyses revealed that task, learning context, and proficiency measure influence fluency–proficiency relationships in the repair, productivity, and speed dimensions, respectively. Post hoc analyses also suggested that the operationalization of breakdown features might make a difference in fluency–proficiency relationships. This study has both theoretical and methodological implications for second language fluency research.

Abstract

There is considerable lab-based evidence for successful incidental learning, in which a learner's attention is directed away from the to-be-learned stimulus and towards another stimulus. In this study, we extend incidental learning research into the language learning classroom. Three groups of adult second language (L2) learners (N = 52) engaged in structured classroom Mandarin learning took part in an 8-week study. One group served as a classroom-only control group. The second group underwent additional intentional auditory training involving Mandarin speech and explicit feedback. The third group underwent additional incidental learning combined with nonspeech “perceptual building block” categories—categories that share critical perceptual dimensions with target L2 speech categories but that are not perceived as speech. We demonstrate that when supplemented with structured classroom learning, incidental learning involving nonspeech analogs promotes phonetic, category, and word learning equivalent to learning from more traditional intentional auditory training.

Abstract

Inferring the meaning of words and then verifying one's interpretations is widely believed to create relatively strong memories of the items. According to the available research, it is when the inferences are accurate that the learning outcomes are the most promising. The present study extends this inquiry to idioms. Fifty-six ESL learners were presented with 21 English idioms (e.g., toe the line) in brief contexts and they were either prompted to infer the meaning of each idiom or they were given the meaning directly. After each inferencing attempt, the correct meaning was given as feedback. This initial learning stage was followed in the same session by a meaning-recall task where the learners were again given the correct meanings as feedback. The results of a posttest administered one week later indicate that prompting learners to make inferences is beneficial compared to directly giving the meanings on condition that the inferencing was successful.

Abstract

The present study investigates the impact of bidialectalism on L2 production, focusing on the role of dialect modes. Shanghai–Mandarin Chinese bidialectal speakers were recruited to produce second language (L2) English vowels under the influence of either Shanghai or Mandarin Chinese mode. Results showed that in the Shanghai mode, participants’ English vowel production closely resembled that of native English speakers. Notably, Shanghai Chinese significantly influenced English vowel production in the Shanghai mode, and Mandarin Chinese had a strong impact on English vowel production in the Mandarin mode. This highlights that each first language (L1) dialect—that is, the activated dialect mode—significantly influences L2 English vowel production. The present study reveals that bidialectal speakers have differential L2 production performance depending on the L1 dialect mode that they activate. These results are interpreted within the framework of the second language linguistic perception (L2LP) model, contributing to the theoretical understanding of how L1 dialect modes influence L2 acquisition.